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New York Times, May 28, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/28/us/politics/trump-twitter-explained.html.

47 David Shepardson, “Biden Revokes Trump Order That Sought to Limit Social Media Firms’ Protections,” Reuters, May 17, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/technology/biden-revokes-trump-order-that-sought-limit-social-media-firms-protections-2021-05-15.

48 Fletcher Schoen and Christopher J. Lamb, “Deception, Disinformation, and Strategic Communications: How One Interagency Group Made a Major Difference,” Institute for National Strategic Studies, June 1, 2012, https://inss.ndu.edu/Media/News/Article/693590/deception-disinformation-and-strategic-communications-how-one-interagency-group.

49 Fred Barbash, “U.S. Ties ‘Klan’ Olympic Hate Mail to KGB,” Washington Post, August 7, 1984, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1984/08/07/us-ties-klan-olympic-hate-mail-to-kgb/80918fe8-fcf0-46cf-bb58-726ee46d8ce9.

50 Michael Dhunjishah, “Countering Propaganda and Disinformation: Bring Back the Active Measures Working Group?,” War Room, July 7, 2017, https://warroom.armywarcollege.edu/articles/countering-propaganda-disinformation-bring-back-active-measures-working-group.

51 Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University, https://knightcolumbia.org/blog/channel/jawboning.

52 Will Oremus with David DiMolfetta, “Disinfo Researchers Are Under Pressure from the Right. They’re Starting to Push Back,” Washington Post, August 3, 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2023/08/03/disinfo-researchers-are-under-pressure-right-theyre-starting-push-back.

53 Mike Masnick, “5th Circuit Cleans Up District Court’s Silly Jawboning Ruling About the Biden Admin, Trims It Down to More Accurately Reflect the 1st Amendment,” Techdirt, September 11, 2023, https://www.techdirt.com/2023/09/11/5th-circuit-cleans-up-district-courts-silly-jawboning-ruling-about-the-biden-admin-trims-it-down-to-more-accurately-reflect-the-1st-amendment.

54 Stanford University filed an amicus brief with the Supreme Court, as we had with the Fifth Circuit, fact-checking the claims about us and our work. That can be found at http://www.supremecourt.gov /DocketPDF/23/23-411/294255/20231226143930837_Murthy%20v.%20Missouri%20--%20SCOTUS%20Amicus%20FINAL.pdf.

55 Yoel Roth, “Getting the Facts Straight: Some Observations on the Fifth Circuit Ruling in Missouri v. Biden,” Jawboning (blog), Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University, September 27, 2023, https://knightcolumbia.org/blog/getting-the-facts-straight-some-observations-on-the-fifth-circuit-ruling-in-missouri-v-biden-1.

56 State of Missouri, et al. v. Joseph R. Biden Jr., et al., 3:22-CV-01213 (W.D. La. Jul. 4, 2023), https://ago.mo.gov/wp-content/uploads/missouri-v-biden-ruling.pdf.

57 Robby Soave, “Inside the Facebook Files: Emails Reveal the CDC’s Role in Silencing COVID-19 Dissent,” Reason, January 19, 2023, https://reason.com/2023/01/19/facebook-files-emails-cdc-covid-vaccines-censorship.

58 For coverage of the controversy, see David Ingram, “Elon Musk’s Twitter Faces Censorship Allegations in India Free Speech Battle,” NBC News, January 25, 2023, https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/modi-twitter-bbc-musk-elon-documentary-watch-video-rcna67497. Also see Lumen’s post about Twitter ceasing contributions: Lumen (@lumendatabase), “As of April 15th, 2023, Twitter has not submitted copies of any of the takedown notices it receives to Lumen…” Twitter, April 27, 2023, 4:25 p.m., https://twitter.com/lumendatabase/status/1651578251599310849.

59 Herbert A. Simon, “Designing Organizations for an Information-Rich World,” in M. Greenberger (ed.), Computers, Communications, and the Public Interest (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971).

60 Renée DiResta, “How Online Mobs Act like Flocks of Birds,” NOEMA, November 3, 2022, https://www.noemamag.com/how-online-mobs-act-like-flocks-of-birds.

61 Kaitlyn Tiffany, “Very, Very Few People Are Falling Down the YouTube Rabbit Hole,” The Atlantic, August 30, 2023, https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2023/08/youtube-rabbit-holes-american-politics/675186.

62 Sandra González-Bailón et al., “Asymmetric Ideological Segregation in Exposure to Political News on Facebook,” Science 381, no. 6656 (July 2023): 392–398, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ade7138.

63 Kai Kupferschmidt, “Does Social Media Polarize Voters? Unprecedented Experiments on Facebook Users Reveal Surprises,” Science, July 27, 2023, https://www.science.org/content/article/does-social-media-polarize-voters-unprecedented-experiments-facebook-users-reveal; Brendan Nyhan et al., “Like-Minded Sources on Facebook Are Prevalent but Not Polarizing,” Nature 620 (July 2023): 137–144, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06795-x.

64 Justin Hendrix and Paul M. Barrett, “The Meta Studies: Nuanced Findings, Corporate Spin, and Media Oversimplification,” Tech Policy Press, August 2, 2023, https://www.techpolicy.press/the-meta-studies-nuanced-findings-corporate-spin-and-media-oversimplification.

65 Aviv Ovadya and Luke Thorburn, “Bridging Systems: Open Problems for Countering Destructive Divisiveness Across Ranking, Recommenders, and Governance,” Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University, October 26, 2023, https://knightcolumbia.org/content/bridging-systems.

66 Tom Cunningham, “Ranking by Engagement,” Tom Cunningham, May 8, 2023, https://tecunningham.github.io/posts/2023-04-28-ranking-by-engagement.html; “Ranking by Engagement,” Integrity Institute, May 8, 2023, https://integrityinstitute.org/blog/ranking-by-engagement.

67 Jonathan Stray, “Designing Recommender Systems to Depolarize,” First Monday 27, no. 5 (2022), https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v27i5.12604.

68 For example, studies suggest that platforms play a role in driving people to untrustworthy websites and that Facebook played a smaller role in 2020 than in 2016. Ryan C. Moore, Ross Dahlke, and Jeffrey T. Hancock, “Exposure to Untrustworthy Websites in the 2020 US Election,” Nature Human Behaviour 7 (2023): 1096–1105, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-023-01564-2.

69 Gordon Pennycook and David G. Rand, “Fighting Misinformation on Social Media Using Crowdsourced Judgements of News Source Quality,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 7 (January 28, 2019): 2521–2526, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1806781116.

70 Eric Jaffe, “The ‘Contagion’ of Social Networks,” Los Angeles Times, September 13, 2010, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-sep-13-la-he-social-networks-health-20100913-story.html.

71 Eli Pariser and Talia Stroud’s nonprofit organization New_ Public maintains a Substack with research into how norms shape digital spaces. See, for example, “Understanding How Norms Shape Digital Spaces,” New_ Public, Substack, December 10, 2023, https://newpublic.substack.com/p/understanding-how-norms-shape-digital.

72 Philip Bump, “From the Election to the Riot, Nearly a Third of Facebook’s Top Link Posts Were from Right-Wing Media,” Washington Post, January 12, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/01/12/election-riot-nearly-third-facebooks-top-link-posts-were-right-wing-media.

73 Renée DiResta, “Free Speech Is Not the Same as Free Reach,” Wired, August 30, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/free-speech-is-not-the-same-as-free-reach.

74 “Freedom of Speech, Not Reach: An Update on Our Enforcement Philosophy,” Twitter Blog, April 17, 2023, https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/topics/product/2023/freedom-of-speech-not-reach-an-update-on-our-enforcement-philosophy.

75 Di Zhao, Pouriya, and Auro, “Twitter: The Algorithm,” GitHub repository, 2023, https://github.com/twitter/the-algorithm.

76 Ragul Bharvaga et al., “Gobo: A System for Exploring User Control of Invisible Algorithms in Social Media,” CSCW (2019): 151–155, https://doi.org/10.1145/3311957.3359452.

77 Francis Fukuyama et al., “Report of the Working Group on Platform Scale,” Stanford Internet Observatory Cyber Policy Center, November 17, 2020, https://cyber.fsi.stanford.edu/publication/report-working-group-platform-scale.

78 Ethan Zuckerman and Chand Rajendra-Nicolucci, “From Community Governance to Customer Service and Back Again: Re-examining Pre-web Models of Online Governance to Address Platforms’ Crisis of Legitimacy,” Social Media and Society 9, no. 3 (July-September 2023): 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231196864.

79 Tobias Rose-Stockwell, Outrage Machine: How Tech Amplifies Discontent, Disrupts Democracy—and What We Can Do About It (London: Piatkus, 2023), also summarized in brief essay form in Tobias Rose-Stockwell, “Facebook’s Problems Can Be Solved with Design,” Quartz, April 30, 2018, https://qz.com/1264547/facebooks-problems-can-be-solved-with-design.

80 James Vincent, “Twitter Is Bringing Its ‘Read Before You Retweet’ Prompt to All Users,” The Verge, September 25, 2020, https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/25/21455635/twitter-read-before-you-tweet-article-prompt-rolling-out-globally-soon.

81 Avie Schneider and Scott Horsley, “How Stock Market Circuit Breakers Work,” NPR, March 9, 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/03/09/813682567/how-stock-market-circuit-breakers-work.

82 Renée DiResta and Tobias Rose-Stockwell, “How to Stop Misinformation Before It Gets Shared,” Wired, March 26, 2021, https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-stop-misinformation-before-it-gets-shared.

83 Renée DiResta, “Elon Musk Is Fighting for Attention, Not Free Speech,” The Atlantic, April 14, 2022, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/04/elon-musk-buy-twitter-free-speech/629571.

84 For more suggestions on friction, see Ellen P. Goodman and Karen Kornbluh, “Social Media Platforms Need to Flatten the Curve of Dangerous Misinformation,” Slate, August 21, 2020, https://slate.com/technology/2020/08/facebook-twitter-youtube-misinformation-virality-speed-bump.html; Ellen P. Goodman, “Digital Information Fidelity and Friction,” Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University, February 26, 2020, https://knightcolumbia.org /content/digital-fidelity-and-friction; Brett M. Frischmann and Susan Benesch, “Friction-in-Design Regulation as 21st Century Time, Place, and Manner Restriction,” Yale Journal of Law and Technology 25 (August 2023): 377–447, https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4178647. Also see the library of design interventions broached by user